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Celtic languages
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
| Celtic | |
|---|---|
| Geographic distribution: |
Formerly widespread in Europe; today only Great Britain, Isle of Man, Ireland and Brittany |
| Genetic classification: |
Indo-European Celtic |
| Subdivisions: | |
| ISO 639-2: | cel |
|
Indo-European topics |
|---|
| Indo-European languages |
| Albanian · Armenian · Baltic Celtic · Germanic · Greek Indo-Iranian (Indo-Aryan, Iranian) Italic · Slavic extinct: Anatolian · Paleo-Balkans (Dacian, |
| Indo-European peoples |
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| Proto-Indo-Europeans |
| Language · Society · Religion |
| Urheimat hypotheses |
| Kurgan hypothesis · Anatolia Armenia · India · PCT |
| Indo-European studies |
The Celtic languages are descended from Proto-Celtic, or "Common Celtic", a branch of the greater Indo-European language family. During the 1st millennium BC, they were spoken across Europe, from the Bay of Biscay and the North Sea, up the Rhine and down the Danube to the Black Sea and the Upper Balkan Peninsula, and into Asia Minor (Galatia). Today, Celtic languages are limited to a few areas in Great Britain, the Isle of Man, Ireland, Cape Breton Island, Patagonia, and on the peninsula of Brittany in France. Proto-Celtic apparently divided into four sub-families:
- Gaulish and its close relatives, Lepontic, Noric and Galatian. These languages were once spoken in a wide arc from France to Turkey and from Belgium to northern Italy.
- Celtiberian, anciently spoken in the Iberian peninsula[1] namely in the areas of modern Northern and South-central Portugal, and Galicia, Asturias, Cantabria, Aragón and León in Spain.
- Goidelic, including Irish, Scottish Gaelic, and Manx.
- Brythonic (also called Brittonic), including Welsh, Breton, Cornish, Cumbric, the hypothetical Ivernic, and possibly also Pictish.[2]
Scholarly handling of the Celtic languages has been rather argumentative owing to lack of primary source data. Some scholars distinguish Continental and Insular Celtic, arguing that the differences between the Goidelic and Brythonic languages arose after these split off from the Continental Celtic languages. Other scholars distinguish P-Celtic from Q-Celtic, putting most of the Continental Celtic languages in the former group (except for Celtiberian, which is Q-Celtic).
The Breton language is Brythonic, not Gaulish. When the Anglo-Saxons moved into Great Britain, some of the native Brythons or "Welsh" (from a Germanic word for "foreigners") fled across the English Channel and landed in Brittany. They brought their Brythonic language with them, which evolved into Breton — which is still partially intelligible with Modern Welsh and Cornish.
The distinction of Celtic into these four sub-families probably occurred about 1000 BC. The early Celts are commonly associated with the archaeological Urnfield culture, the Hallstatt culture, and the La Tène culture.
Contents |
The term Celtic is pronounced either /ˈkɛltɪk/ or /ˈsɛltɪk/, but /ˈkɛltɪk/ is more common. The term is sometimes spelt either Keltic or Celtick in old documents.
There are two competing schemata of categorization. One scheme, argued for by Schmidt (1988) among others, links Gaulish with Brythonic in a P-Celtic node, leaving Goidelic as Q-Celtic. The difference between P and Q languages is the treatment of Proto-Celtic *kw, which became *p in the P-Celtic languages but *k in Goidelic. An example is the Proto-Celtic verb root *kwrin- "to buy", which became pryn- in Welsh but cren- in Old Irish.
The other scheme, defended for example by McCone (1996), links Goidelic and Brythonic together as an Insular Celtic branch, while Gaulish and Celtiberian are referred to as Continental Celtic. According to this theory, the "P-Celtic" sound change of [kʷ] to [p] occurred independently or areally. The proponents of the Insular Celtic hypothesis point to other shared innovations among Insular Celtic languages, including inflected prepositions, VSO word order, and the lenition of intervocalic [m] to [β̃], a nasalized voiced bilabial fricative (an extremely rare sound). There is, however, no assumption that the Continental Celtic languages descend from a common "Proto-Continental Celtic" ancestor. Rather, the Insular/Continental schemata usually considers Celtiberian the first branch to split from Proto-Celtic, and the remaining group would later have split into Gaulish and Insular Celtic.
There are legitimate scholarly arguments in favour of both the Insular Celtic hypothesis and the P-Celtic/Q-Celtic hypothesis. Proponents of each schema dispute the accuracy and usefulness of the other's categories. Since the realization that Celtiberian was Q-Celtic in the 1970s, the division into Insular and Continental Celtic is the more widespread opinion (Cowgill 1975; McCone 1991, 1992; Schrijver 1995).
When referring only to the modern Celtic languages, since no Continental Celtic language has living descendants, "Q-Celtic" is equivalent to "Goidelic" and "P-Celtic" is equivalent to "Brythonic".
Within the Indo-European family, the Celtic languages have sometimes been placed with the Italic languages in a common Italo-Celtic subfamily, a hypothesis that is now largely discarded, in favour of the assumption of language contact between pre-Celtic and pre-Italic communities.
How the family tree of the Celtic languages is ordered depends on which hypothesis is used -
|
Insular/Continental hypothesis |
P-Celtic/Q-Celtic hypothesis |
Although there are many differences between the individual Celtic languages, they do show many family resemblances. While none of these characteristics is necessarily unique to the Celtic languages, there are few if any other languages which possess them all. They include:
- consonant mutations (Insular Celtic only)
- inflected prepositions (Insular Celtic only)
- two grammatical genders (modern Insular Celtic only; Old Irish and the Continental languages had three genders)
- a vigesimal number system (counting by twenties)
- verb-subject-object (VSO) word order
- an interplay between the subjunctive, future, imperfect, and habitual, to the point that some tenses and moods have ousted others
- an impersonal or autonomous verb form serving as a passive or intransitive
- Welsh dysgais "I taught" vs. dysgwyd "was taught, one taught"
- no infinitives, replaced by a quasi-nominal verb form called the verbal noun or verbnoun
- frequent use of vowel mutation as a morphological device, e.g. formation of plurals, verbal stems, etc.
- use of preverbal particles to signal either subordination or illocutionary force of the following clause
- mutation-distinguished subordinators/relativizers
- particles for negation, interrogation, and occasionally for afirmative declarations
- infixed pronouns positioned between particles and verbs
- lack of simple verb for the imperfective "have" process, with possession conveyed by a composite structure, usually BE + preposition
- use of periphrastic phrases to express verbal tense, voice, or aspectual distinctions
- distinction by function of the two versions of BE verbs traditionally labelled substantive (or existential) and copula
- bifurcated demonstrative structure
- suffixed pronominal supplements, called confirming or supplementary pronouns
- use of singulars and/or special forms of counted nouns, and use of a singulative suffix to make singular forms from plurals, where older singulars have disappeared
Examples:
(Irish) Ná bac le mac an bhacaigh is ní bhacfaidh mac an bhacaigh leat.
(Literal translation) Don't bother with son the beggar's and not will-bother son the beggar's with-you.
- bhacaigh is the genitive of bacach. The igh the result of affection; the bh is the lenited form of b.
- leat is the second person singular inflected form of the preposition le.
- The order is VSO in the second half.
(Welsh) pedwar ar bymtheg a phedwar ugain
(literally) four on fifteen and four twenties
- bymtheg is a mutated form of pymtheg, which is pump ("five") plus deg ("ten"). Likewise, phedwar is a mutated form of pedwar.
- The multiples of ten are deg, ugain, deg ar hugain, deugain, hanner cant, trigain, deg a thrigain, pedwar ugain, deg a phedwar ugain, cant.
- Bungee language, a Metis mix of Scottish Gaelic and Cree language
- Shelta, a mix of Romany language, the Irish language and English
- Some forms of Romany language in Wales, also combined Romany itself with Welsh language and English language forms.
- Aberdeen University Celtic Department
- Ethnologue report for Celtic languages
- Ethnologue report for Indo-European languages
- "Labara: An Introduction to the Celtic Languages", by Meredith Richard
- Celts and Celtic Languages
- Ball, Martin J. & James Fife (ed.) (1993). The Celtic Languages. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415010357.
- Borsley, Robert D. & Ian Roberts (ed.) (1996). The Syntax of the Celtic Languages: A Comparative Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521481600.
- Cowgill, Warren (1975). "The origins of the Insular Celtic conjunct and absolute verbal endings", in H. Rix (ed.): Flexion und Wortbildung: Akten der V. Fachtagung der Indogermanischen Gesellschaft, Regensburg, 9.–14. September 1973. Wiesbaden: Reichert, 40–70. ISBN 3-920153-40-5.
- Celtic Linguistics, 1700-1850 (2000). London; New York: Routledge. 8 vol.s comprising 15 texts originally published between 1706 and 1844.
- Hindley, Reg (1990). The Death of the Irish Language: A Qualified Obituary. London; New York: Routledge. ISBN 0415043395.
- Lewis, Henry & Holger Pedersen (1989). A Concise Comparative Celtic Grammar. Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. ISBN 3525261020.
- McCone, Kim (1991). "The PIE stops and syllabic nasals in Celtic". Studia Celtica Japonica 4: 37–69.
- McCone, Kim (1992). "Relative Chronologie: Keltisch", in R. Beekes, A. Lubotsky, and J. Weitenberg (eds.): Rekonstruktion und relative Chronologie: Akten Der VIII. Fachtagung Der Indogermanischen Gesellschaft, Leiden, 31. August–4. September 1987. Institut für Sprachwissenschaft der Universität Innsbruck, 12–39. ISBN 3-85124-613-6.
- McCone, K. (1996). Towards a Relative Chronology of Ancient and Medieval Celtic Sound Change. Maynooth: Department of Old and Middle Irish, St. Patrick's College. ISBN 0-901519-40-5.
- Russell, Paul (1995). An Introduction to the Celtic Languages. London; New York: Longman. ISBN 0582100828.
- Schmidt, K. H. (1988). "On the reconstruction of Proto-Celtic", in G. W. MacLennan: Proceedings of the First North American Congress of Celtic Studies, Ottawa 1986. Ottawa: Chair of Celtic Studies, 231–48. ISBN 0-09-693260-0.
- Schrijver, Peter (1995). Studies in British Celtic historical phonology. Amsterdam: Rodopi. ISBN 90-5183-820-4.
- ^ ,www.arkeotavira.com
- ^ The late Kenneth Jackson proposed a non-Indo-European Pictish language existing alongside a Pretenic one. This is no longer generally accepted. See Katherine Forsyth's "Language in Pictland : the case against 'non-Indo-European Pictish'" EtextPDF (27.8 MiB). See also the introduction by James & Taylor to the "Index of Celtic and Other Elements in W.J.Watson's 'The History of the Celtic Place-names of Scotland'" EtextPDF (172 KiB). Compare also the treatment of Pictish in Price's The Languages of Britain (1984) with his Languages in Britain & Ireland (2000).
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| Continental Celtic† | Celtiberian† · Galatian† · Gaulish† · Lepontic† · Noric† · Eastern Celtic† |
| Insular Celtic | Brythonic (British/Brittonic): Breton · British† · Cornish · Cumbric† · Ivernic† · Pictish† · Welsh Goidelic (Gaelic): Galwegian† · Irish · Manx · Scottish Gaelic (Scotland • Canada) |
| Mixed languages | Bungee† · Shelta |
| denotes Extinct (†) | |
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| Peoples | Breton · Cornish · Irish · Irish Traveller · Manx · Scottish · Ulster-Scots · Welsh | |